Table 2.
Overview of different PET tracers used to study glucose and neurotransmitters in neurodevelopmental disorders
| Tracer | Tracer binding | NDDs in which molecular changes have been reported | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Glucose main source of energy for the brain, critical for brain functions, such as memory and learning, and precursor for neurotransmitter synthesis | [18F]-FDG | Rett syndrome (Villemagne et al., 2002), Dravet syndrome (Haginoya et al., 2018; Kumar et al., 2018; Ricobaraza et al., 2019), ID +/− epilepsy (Itomi et al., 2002; Natsume et al., 2014), ASD (Rumsey et al., 1985; Haznedar et al., 1997; Haznedar et al., 2006; H.T. Chugani et al., 2007; Dilber et al., 2013; Chivate et al., 2016; Anil Kumar et al., 2017; Mitelman et al., 2018), ADHD (Zametkin et al., 1990; Ernst et al., 1994; Ha et al., 2020) | |
| GABA major inhibitory neurotransmitter, excitatory effects during development, critical role in brain development and in physiological processes such as memory, attention, and stress reactivity | [11C]-FMZ | GABAA | Prader–Willi syndrome (Lucignani et al., 2004), Angelman syndrome (Holopainen et al., 2001), Fragile X syndrome (D'Hulst et al., 2015; Horder et al., 2018) |
| [11C]-Ro15-4513 | GABAA α5 | ASD (Mendez et al., 2013) | |
| Glutamate major excitatory neurotransmitter, critical for brain development and function | [18F]-FPEB | mGluR5 | Fragile X syndrome (Brašić et al., 2021; Mody et al., 2021; Afshar et al., 2022; Brašić et al., 2022), ASD (Fatemi et al., 2018; Cai et al., 2019; Brašić et al., 2021) |
| Dopamine neurotransmitter, involved in the motivational component of reward-motivated behavior, motor control, and control of hormone release | [11C]-NMSP | D2 dopamine receptor | Rett syndrome (Wong et al., 2018) |
| [11C]-raclopride | D2/D3 dopamine receptor | Rett syndrome (Wong et al., 2018), ADHD (Rosa-Neto et al., 2005; Volkow et al., 2007b; Brown et al., 2011) | |
| [11C]-WIN-35428 | Dopamine transport | ASD (Nakamura et al., 2010) | |
| [11C]-cocaine | Dopamine transport | ADHD (Volkow et al., 2007b) | |
| [11C]-altropane | Dopamine transport | ADHD (Spencer et al., 2007) | |
| [11C]-FLB457 | D2/D3 dopamine receptor | ASD (Murayama et al., 2022) | |
| [18F]-DOPA | L-DOPA analogue | ASD (Nieminen-von Wendt et al., 2004), ADHD (Ernst et al., 1998; Ludolph et al., 2008) | |
| L-[11C]-DOPA | L-DOPA analogue | ADHD (Forssberg et al., 2006) | |
| [11C]-PE2I | Dopamine transport | ADHD (Jucaite et al., 2005) | |
| Serotonin [5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)] role in neuronal proliferation, migration, and development, role in mood, emotions, appetite and digestion, precursor of melatonin (role in sleep-wake cycle) | α[11C]-AMT | Tryptophan (precursor) | ASD (D.C. Chugani et al., 1997; Chandana et al., 2005) |
| [11C](+)McN-5652 | Serotonin receptor | ASD (Nakamura et al., 2010) | |
| [18F]-setoperone | Serotonin receptor | ASD (Beversdorf et al., 2012) |
-
ADHD: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; ASD: autism spectrum disorder; ID: intellectual disability; mGluR5: Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5; NDDs: neurodevelopmental disorders.
