Effects of learning across all participants. a, Behavioral results. The raincloud plot depicts the distribution of response times for all trials across participants in the experiment separately for valid (red), neutral (light blue), and invalid (dark blue) conditions. The box plots below depict the distribution of subjects' mean RTs across conditions, with large circles indicating the overall mean RT across subjects. Asterisks indicate a significant difference between conditions. b, ERP results. N2pc and LPC waveforms plotted by condition. The colored tick marks below the N2pc indicate the quantified latency using the half area under the curve method for each condition, measured from 175 to 600 ms. Scalp maps depict the overall topography of the N2pc averaged across conditions in the windows from 200 to 400 ms and 400 to 600 ms for the N2pc and from 400 to 600 ms for the LPC.